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Tuberculosis (TB): A Complete Guide to Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment Introduction Tuberculosis , often abbreviated as TB , is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis . It most commonly affects the lungs but can also involve other organs such as the brain, spine, kidneys, and lymph nodes. Despite being both preventable and curable, TB continues to be one of the top ten causes of death worldwide, particularly in developing countries. It spreads from person to person through the air when an infected individual coughs, sneezes, speaks, or spits. Although significant progress has been made in TB control through public health efforts and antibiotics, the disease remains a major global health concern due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains and its strong association with HIV/AIDS . Understanding Tuberculosis Tuberculosis can present in two main forms: latent TB infection and active TB disease . In latent TB, the bacteria ...

  Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia (HSP) Introduction Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia (HSP), also known as Familial Spastic Paraparesis , refers to a group of rare, inherited neurological disorders that primarily affect the upper motor neurons . These disorders are characterized by progressive stiffness and contraction ( spasticity ) and weakness of the leg muscles. The severity and progression of symptoms can vary widely among individuals, even within the same family. Anatomy and Pathophysiology HSP affects the corticospinal tracts , which are part of the central nervous system. These nerve pathways originate in the cerebral cortex and travel down through the spinal cord, where they influence voluntary motor control, particularly of the lower limbs. In HSP, there is progressive degeneration or dysfunction of these tracts, leading to the hallmark symptoms of the disease. Types of Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia HSP is broadly classified into two categories: Pure HSP : Characteriz...

Lyme Syndrome: A Complex Multisystem Infection Introduction Lyme syndrome , more accurately known as Lyme disease , is a tick-borne illness caused primarily by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi in North America and Borrelia afzelii or Borrelia garinii in Europe and Asia. It is transmitted through the bite of infected black-legged ticks (commonly known as deer ticks). First recognized in Lyme, Connecticut , in the 1970s, the disease has since become the most common vector-borne infection in many parts of the world. Lyme syndrome can affect the skin, joints, nervous system, and heart if not diagnosed and treated in its early stages. Cause and Transmission Lyme syndrome is caused by spirochete bacteria of the Borrelia genus. Humans usually acquire the infection through the bite of an infected tick, particularly the Ixodes species. The tick must typically be attached for 36 to 48 hours before the bacteria can be transmitted. Therefore, early removal of ticks is critical for prev...

Freiberg’s Test: A Clinical Tool for Sciatic Nerve Assessment Introduction Freiberg’s Test is an orthopedic clinical examination technique used to detect sciatic nerve irritation, particularly due to piriformis syndrome. This test assesses the involvement of the sciatic nerve by reproducing symptoms through forced internal rotation of the extended hip. Freiberg’s Test is especially valuable when differentiating between true sciatica and piriformis-related sciatic symptoms, helping clinicians determine the origin of a patient's lower limb radiating pain. Purpose and Clinical Use The main objective of Freiberg’s Test is to evaluate sciatic nerve entrapment or irritation as it passes beneath or through the piriformis muscle. Since piriformis syndrome can mimic lumbar radiculopathy, this test becomes particularly relevant in outpatient physiotherapy or orthopedic evaluations, where distinguishing between spinal and peripheral nerve involvement is essential for correct diagnosis an...

Yocum’s Test: Clinical Examination of Shoulder Impingement Introduction Yocum’s Test is a valuable clinical examination used to assess shoulder pain, specifically to detect subacromial impingement. This test is considered a modification of the Hawkins-Kennedy Test and is used in orthopedic and physiotherapy settings. It is easy to perform, requires no special equipment, and helps clinicians identify irritation in structures like the supraspinatus tendon or subacromial bursa. Procedure To perform the test, the patient is seated or standing. The affected arm is flexed so that the hand touches the opposite shoulder, crossing the chest. From this position, the patient is asked to lift their elbow without moving the hand from the shoulder. This movement forces the humeral head upwards under the acromion, potentially compressing the rotator cuff tendons and subacromial bursa. Positive Sign and Interpretation The test is considered positive if the patient experiences pain or discomfort...

Yergason’s Test Yergason’s Test is a special orthopedic examination used primarily to assess the stability of the long head of the biceps tendon in the bicipital groove of the humerus. It also aids in the diagnosis of bicipital tendinopathy and injury to the transverse humeral ligament . The test is widely used in clinical physiotherapy and orthopedics to evaluate anterior shoulder pain. Introduction Shoulder pain is a common complaint in clinical practice, often resulting from soft tissue injury or overuse syndromes. Among these, biceps tendon pathology —particularly tendinopathy and instability—is a frequently encountered condition, especially in athletes and individuals performing repetitive overhead activities. Yergason’s Test was first introduced as a means to identify biceps tendon instability or inflammation and assess the integrity of the transverse humeral ligament , which stabilizes the tendon within the bicipital groove. A positive test can indicate biceps patholo...

Flexor Digitorum Brevis Muscle: Anatomy, Function, and Clinical Relevance Introduction The Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) is a small but vital muscle located in the sole of the foot. It plays a crucial role in maintaining proper toe flexion, providing support to the arches of the foot, and facilitating smooth movements during walking, running, and balancing. Despite being overshadowed by larger muscles in the lower limb, the FDB is often implicated in conditions involving foot fatigue, plantar fasciitis, and biomechanical imbalances. Anatomy Origin The muscle originates from the medial process of the calcaneal tuberosity and the plantar aponeurosis . Insertion The FDB splits into four tendons , each of which inserts into the middle phalanges of the 2nd to 5th toes (digits 2–5). These tendons pass superficially over the flexor digitorum longus tendons. Nerve Supply Innervated by the medial plantar nerve , a branch of the tibial nerve . Spinal roots : S1–S2 Bl...